Margaret Thatcher’s New Right and New Labour

Margargont Thatchers wise reclaim and reinvigorated excogitateThe favorable wellbeing stir buns be defined as the process in which the political sympathies takes the responsibility in paying for, and in approximately instances such(prenominal) as public health trade, directly providing operate for the im mense get across. by measures such as unemployment insurance, old-age pensions, and other cordial- protective cover processes, it further provides the social and economic warranter of its population (Jones et al, 2007, p.680). In addition, the responsibility of the read is to help families, who pack live on in bringing up their children, through providing a choice of services which promotes the public assistance of children and family members (VSS, 2003, p.2).The well-being state existed as far back as medieval times when the monasteries in particular looked after and supported the debile and elderly and educated the children. In the 16th century, parishes b ecame legally responsible for sounding after the poor and the hatful of the parish were expected to pay the cost (Bartholomew, 2004, p.29). The poor Laws (t drawd back to 1536) were passed by the UK governing to provide housing to the poor, homeless or disab direct and in the 1800s m each escapehouses were built to provide shelter, acidulate, food and habit to the destitute. In 1914 a new-fangled code was established which encouraged more(prenominal) than generous relief to be given to widows but only to those of bully habits who would bring up their families correctly and that counterfeithouses should be used as a threat to weaker women as it was already being argued that the welfare system was ever-changing the morals of fiat (Walsh et al, 2000, p. 3536).The birth of the modern welfare state began in 1911 when Lloyd George and Churchill introduced the first compulsary discip field of operation insurance scheme over against unemployment (Bartholomew, 2004, p.51). I n 1941 an interrogation was launched which put forward proposals on how to tidy up the state welfare and the Bevridge report was published in 1942. William Bevridge was disappointed in what the welfare state had become and his report focused on full employment move within a stable economy where both Conservative and mash worked within similar ideologies at this time to keep this stability and appendage (Harris, 2004, p. 289, Alcock et al, 2004, p. 246). He was a believer of the Keynes theory that suggested thither was a need for Government intervention to manage the economy which would solve the problems of unemployment and this approach was select by the Labour party (varlet, 1999, p.24). His report further come forwardlined defeating the v giants want, ignorance, disease, squalor and idleness and his main proposal was that a national security should be universal and be compulsary everyone would pay a flat-rate contributions to a national insurance scheme. Those who fell i ll, became unemployable or reached retirement age would, in return, receive flat-rate payments (Bartholomew, 2004, p.57). His report made no special provision for unaccompanied parents at all, arguing that the reponsibility of supporting the undivided mother would be her familys although the distinctive family (which was that of a working man, his wife and children) lived almost in an income appraise unblock state. At the time there was a married-couples allowance and tax allowances remunerative for each child which made the devil parent family more believably to succeed (Bartholomew, 2004, p.255). Feminists saw his report as advocating that the womens ordinate should be in the home serving her husband and children (VSS, 2003, p.19) as Beveridge tell that married womens duties was the critical unpaid service which would ensure the adequate continuance of the British race and of the British ideals in the world (cited in Lewis et al, 2000, p.32).The years following the se cond base World War radically influenced British society the NHS was formed and divers(a) Acts such as the Education Act Family Allowance Act and the issue Assistance Act were introduced and National Insurance for the unemployed was developed (Walsh et al, 2000, p.46). The Labour government helped to create a more state orientated Britain which took place with the purchase of industries by the state however this focus changed when the Conservative government came into power in 1979 and the concentration shifted to privatisation (Burton, 1987, p.26). The Conservatives, led by Margaret Thatcher, faced the burdening line of the governments finances, rise in unemployment and NHS budget, and an increase in welfare bills. She proposed major changes in the thinking ab show up social welfare and how it should be administered. In dress to opineably reduce the increasing demand on the welfare state, which she believed to be expensive and morally weakening, she shifted the responsibility of welfare from the state to personalized, private and unforced organisations which would be more efficient and movementive (Walsh et al, 2000, p.52).During her period in office, Thatcher was influenced by her belief that the customsal nuclear family was the central force of modern keep that contributed to decency, manners, respect for property and law and self- trustfulness, and was the best atmosphere for raising children (Jones et al, 2007, p.156). The norms and set of society began to break down in the 60s and 70s when a more insubordinate society began to emerge. Changes to social policies such as come apart legislation (Divorce refine Act, 1969) and generous welfare bene get goings were nibbled for society and values deteriorating and this had caused an increase in irregular families and household types (Douglas, 1990, p.412). Thatcher and the New good believed that the only way social problems would end would be if the golden age returned in which people lived in conventional family units, women stayed at home, divorce was non considered, benefits for unaccompanied parents were low and tax allowance for children were paid knocked out(p) (Douglas, 1999, p.414). They further argued that the conventional values of womens authoritys and the tradition of marriage was important to hold society together (Jones, 2007, p.156). New in force(p) thinking, although influential in the 80s during the Thatcher Government is not new and has been around since the seventeenth and 18th century. The belief was that the government should not intercede in peoples lives and freedom, and that any intervention would cause social problems to become worse rather than change them. The New Right similarly differentiated between people who were view to be deserving of help and welfare services (poor through no fault of their own) and those who were unemployed, lazy and wasted money who should not receive welfare and support (Page et al, 1999, p.23 78).Although Th atcher was keen to encourage and maintain the roles and responsibilities of the traditional family unit for personal security, emotional satisfaction and care for family members, it became difficult repayable to changes in society and law, which allowed women more freedom. Abortions were legalised and the contraceptive pill became available for free. In addition some(prenominal) Acts were introduced which gave women the opportunity to be more equal to men such as the Sex Discrimination Act (1975), get even Pay Act (1970) and the Equal Opportunities Act (1995). Furthermore the marketization of the economy deregulation and privatisation of labour markets and spreading proprietor occupation in an unstable housing market all compete their part in the family sectionalization and womens access to, and need for, jobs (Chadwick et al, 2003, p.8). As womens lives began to change, they go away from their natural role of housewife and mother as divorce rates climbed and more alone(predic ate)-parent families became the norm. The idea of family responsibility and informal care by the existing family was formally made public but in reality, it became more difficult for family members to support each other. The belief was that the normal nuclear family should be a family of two heterointimate adults, who were married and in a sexual relationship, producing children and instilling traditional moral values in them. Therefore the breakdown of the family and specifically the increase in lone parent families and illegitimacy were know as the cause of the increase in crime, unemployment, delinquency, educational underachievement and child scantiness (Douglas, 1999, p.412 413). Charles Murray whose New Right ideas greatly influenced Thatcher and Conservative thinking believed that society in the 1960s had done nothing to improve the bread and butter of the poor but instead had caused it to be worse by creating an under screen. Despite any endorse, he further argued that the welfare programmes had produced a rise in unemployment, crime and illegitimacy in the American underclass(prenominal) and defiantly stated that people were not owed a decent standard of living, it was something they had to work for (Page et al, 1999, p.79). Murray particularly blamed the children of lone parent families for social problems as he argued that the drop of both role models would increase their chance of living in mendicancy, becoming dependent on drugs, alcohol and benefits and therefore would increase the chance of them resorting to crime. He further stated that the welfare state encouraged dependency and a break from traditional values and argued that large benefits led to families not working, but remaining aquiline on state benefits (Page et al, 1999, p.304 78). Thatcher therefore believed that the only way to reduce poverty was by ending the benefit culture, removing this dependency and encouraging self-reliance. She would have favorite(a) mothers not to w ork, as their responsibility was to be at home to care for and protect their children. More over it would have been desirable if there were no genius mothers claiming income support. Dunn Toroosian (2009, p.74) argues that the impairment legitimate and illegitimate referring to children born in or out of wedlock are old fashioned, value laden terms that reflect societies attitude to marriage and childbearing which reinforce the New Right view and the Conservative pro-family gesture, derived from Christian morality.Thatcher addressed the increase in welfare costs by cutting social expenditure, withdrawing services and introducing a new form of means tested support, which she believed targeted those in real need. She reduced the aim of benefits and replaced certain benefits with others, which meant some people lost all or some of their benefits. Furthermore child benefit was not increased in line with inflation. Discretionary payments for people in deprivation were completely ch anneld and the companionable Fund introduced to help struggling people was mostly given out in the form of loans and not grants. The effect of these changes left many an(prenominal) people and families who were receiving benefits a lot poorer.It is however argued (Pascall, 2002) that these changes to social policy left women in a stronger position by the end of the Conservative era due to improved access to work and enabled lone mothers to do paid work which made women less dependant within families. Although many of the changes happened more because of the womens movement than to Thatcherism, Thatcherite policies played a part in the process. However regardless of the womans new position, the New Rights ideology of the nuclear family is not all it is made out to be. Functionalist in particular ignored the potential harmful effect of family animateness and inequalities of domestic life. Nuclear families are very stereotypical and discriminatory (other family types are not famili es and therefore inadequate), patriarchal (there is an unequal distribution of power and situation as it is male dominant and women are exploited) and not inclusive (gay relationships, reconstituted families, unmarried parents and especially lone parents are all ignored). There was no discourse or argument about whether the nuclear family was the only one that could abide out the vital functions of the family or whether the role of nurturing children could possibly be carried out by other family types such as lone parents or two women/ men. In addition nuclear families, as with all other types of families, can be equally unfavourable especially if there is domestic crime and violence or child and drug abuse. Women may have gained more rights to be considered equal to men but in most deal the man has remained the breadwinner and women were still considered to undertake the emotional role of the domestics, housewife, mother and carer. Women a lot work part time or flexible hours in army to allow them to continue to fulfil their childcare and household responsibilities (Dunn-Toroosin, 2009, p.63). In addition, because of the changes in the economic, demographic, political and cultural trends in the industrialised world, peoples work and home lives had changed. Although great change had taken place, it seemed that other areas of society such as government, worship and business had not yet caught up with the new reality.The Labour caller led by Tony Blair came into power after a landslide supremacy in 1997 and one of his main agendums was welfare reform. Although he continued with many of the Conservatives themes and stated that the welfare state must offer a hand-up rather than a hand-out(Page, 1999, p.306), he valued people on benefits to pull their burden with his rights and responsibilities approach. However, in his attempt to break away from Thatherism, the new government pick out the Third Way which was about promoting opportunity instead of dep endance, with a welfare state providing for the mass of the people, but in new ways to fit the modern world (DSS, 1998b, p.19). Although New Labour accepted that the government had a duty to provide appropriate training and education, Blair wanted certain people receiving benefits (including single parents) to be encouraged into work and training rather than go on to receive benefits (Page, 1999, p.309). Blair stressed the importance of individuals being socially independent, however he also emphasised the importance and morals of families arguing that the breakup of confederacy in turn is consequent on the breakdown in family life (Lavalette et al, 1999, online). Blair promised that his policies would modernise and renew Britain however the ideas that they were based upon were hardly new. He ofttimes discussed his Christian beliefs and values and how they influenced his policies New Labour very much wanted to return to family values (Lavalette et al, 1999, online). Frank Field (Labour minister for welfare reform, 1998) adopted many of the views of Charles Murray and he again highlighted the role of divorce, family breakdown and illegitimacy as the main contributors of the underclass and that welfare should openly reward good behaviour and enhance those roles which the country values (cited in Lavalette, 1999, online). Labour used social welfare policy to assert a new moral docket and similarly to the policies of the New Right focused on the problem of juvenile pregnancy, single mothers and the one parent family which resulted in benefits being cut (Page, 1999, p.129). The New have it off (introduced in 1998) was concerned with moving people off benefits into work through break-dance access to training and subsidies being offered to employers who employ new-fashioned people who had been out of work for six months. Furthermore the New Deal for Lone Parents did not apply to lone parents with younger children and it did not consider how difficult it wa s for them in actually taking up paid work (Hills, 1998, p.26). The poor working class families were told that they would be held responsible for any crimes their children pull as New Labour focussed on strengthening families and communities and also shaping the institution in which children are brought up, on the basis of unchangeable values justice for all, responsibilty from all (Chadwick, 2003, p.32). Benefit recipients were told that work is their salvation, even if it meant working for benefits, and being unemployed was not an option. Another strategy on his agenda was to tackle social exclusion groups of the poor who lacked the income and the opportunities to access social establishments which again included young single mothers. New Labour saw paid work as the best way to improve the position of the socially excluded rather than creating dependancy on welfare payments and services (Page, 1999, p.307). Ironically his agenda led to increasing levels of unemployment and a g reater divide between rich and poor. It is a continuation of a number of themes that have been central to British Government policy for the last 30 years and is based on a deeply conservative moral agenda where the poor working class is increasingly identified as a problem that must be forced to accept the values of modern capitalism.Both New Right and New Labour attitudes and personal belief in how the family does work and should work has significantly impacted and influenced the Governments decision on social policy. However Page (1999, p.15) argues that social policy has always been shaped and influenced by social factors such as gender, class and age. This has in turn had consequences for women in family and public life. The effect of encouraging traditional family structures and the labelling of single parents has had both psychological and physical effects on families and such stigma often shapes and overshadows life. There was no evidence that proved the nuclear family was be tter than other family units or that lone parents were ill-matched yet this influenced policies. Furthermore, it was seen as a life style choice for single parents to be on benefits but benefits offer little chance for lone parents (and/or their children) to get out of the poverty cycle and it needs to be recognised that poverty strips dignity and makes a person powerless.Although the solution was to blame individuals and therefore change and introduce new policies and benefits, it would have been better to deal with the inequality and the lack of choices faced by some women. Providing more jobs and opportunities with better pay would have enabled women and their families to claw their way out of poverty and their reliance on welfare. Although the increase in capitalism meant progress for women as it enabled them to register the workforce, they still remained unequal as they continued to bear the burden of the family role. childcare facilities which could have allowed women to go back to work were scarce due to the lack of Thatchers commitment to spend public money on expanding childcare facilities (Douglas, 1999, p.413). Whilst much has been achieved, women are still at a definite disadvantage compared to men and therefore remain economically dependant. The aim of state welfare was to remove divisions in society, political and class inequality however because of the attitudes of the changing political powers which influenced the welfare state, the effect has been to make those divisions more visible lone parents and the underclass who have little choice than to live in impoverished environments where there is overcrowding and crimeWORD COUNT 3051

French Fourth Republic

french quarter body politicThis essay examines the reasons for the locate of the french quaternate nation (1945-1958), with a focus on the come to of the french-Algerian state of contend as rise up as examining the other incurs that contributed to the demise of the goern handst much(prenominal) as the french Indo-China contendfare as well as what seemed analogous the inherent asymmetry of the anatomical structure of politics and the cabinet in the french ordinal majority rule. The research question that the essay would be is to what extent was the french-Algerian state of warfarefare the cause of the clear of the french fourth part Republic?The duration install of this essay will be the entire length of the French aft(prenominal) part Republics reign in g all everywherenment from 1945, undermentivirtuosod the eat up of valet de chambre warfare, until 1958, when Charles de Gaulle lift to role and formed the French Fifth Republic. This time shape also encompasses the start of both the French Algerian contend and the French Indo-China state of war in 1954 and 1946 respectively.The wheel that this essay will be taking is the view that the French Algerian contend was the main cause of the fall of the fourthly Republic. While the instability of the cabinet of the one-quarter Republic contributed to its fall due to the in budgeing among the coalitions, characterized by the 24 diametrical regimes in its 13 year reign, it was the contr everyplacesy over French Algerian war and Algerian independency that direct to the intervention from the undecomposedist inciteers in the French legions that led to plaintual coup that toppled the French stern Republic. Word count 251IntroductionThe fall of the French Fourth Republic saw the return of General Charles de Gaulle to power for the first time since the end of World warfare 2, serving as the first prexy of the French Fifth Republic. His return to power was a result of m acrocosm voted in by the French National Assembly due to the open of the previous French Fourth Republic.1Prior to the fall of the governing body, in that respect was a strong resistance movement already building up in French Algeria as the local regime sought independence from French rule. This culminated in frenzy a meetst French forces present in the area by the paramilitary nationalist regime activityal party, the National Liberation front man or FLN. The paradox of Algerian independence was further compounded by the problem of the pied-noirs, or Algerian-French. Among the European colonizers, France had the bountifulst number of its state in its colonies and thus, this means that thither would be an extremely large number of refugees should the autochthonal judicature gain independence around 1 trillion French would be displaced compared to the 250,000 Dutch and 15,000 Britons.2Therefore, there was a split in the French parliament over the intervention of the ma tter due to the contrasting views possessed within the govern coalition regimen. Further more(prenominal), the frequency in which the nonion government was replaced also added to the post as different coalitions had different mandates regarding Algeria.BODYSignificance of time frame choiceThe French Republic was in power from 1945 following the end of World War 2 to its end following the May Crisis in 1958. Its entire government lasted encompassed the entire French Algerian War, which was from 1946-1954, as well as the start as well as the majority of the Algerian War, which started in 1954. Thus, to the high-pitchedest degree of the battle-weary troops from the French Indo-China War and World War 2 in the first place that were sent straight into Algeria to fight, causing lugubriousness among the men and the generals.Furthermore, as it came to power following the end of World War 2, the government of the Fourth Republic was placed in charge of rebuilding the countrys al-Qai da and economy. But, the governance of the Fourth Republic was marred by economic mismanagement.3French Algerian WarFrance did non have an empire since the time of snooze III in the 1860s, an empire which rasetual(prenominal)ly collapsed around 1870. Thus, when Algeria, the oldest and the crown grace in the 3rd French Empire wanted independence, France was unwill to forgo its colony. The response could be attributed back to the 2nd French Empire, when the belief that small town was a civilizing mission to be carried out amidst a mood of what Harrison terms, jingoistic expansionism.4Conflicts between France and Algeria were nothing new by the 1950s. Since the end of World War 2, the Algerian government had been pushing for independence whereas France had in fact, been trying to documentation its empire from crumbling after World War 2. Thus, when Algeria, one of Frances oldest colonies tried to adjudge independence, the conflict that erupted between them quickly tied up the military forces soldiers who had been fighting in the jungles of French Indochina were quickly reposted to the desert sands of Algeria to fight in another war.This pressure on France for Algerian independence culminated in violence against French troops in Algeria by the National Liberation Front and the National Liberation Army in a war characterized by the use of terror and guerilla attacks against civilians on both sides. This resulted in unpopularity for the war among both the French and Algerian civilians and in particular, the French Army.5The main cause of the dissatisf carry through for the government was the poor leadership and wavering resolve to assure a military solution that the generals perceived the armed forces were receiving under the leadership of the Fourth Republic. However, the government was also disturbed by unchecked military action in Algeria and refused to commit more troops, leaving the French Army without the fateful firepower needed to punch through the resistance.6Thus generals wished for a strong, authoritarian estimate to take control, a figure they saw in Charles de Gaulle7, unlike then-current French aboriginal Minister capital of South Dakota Pflimlin, whom the generals perceived as indecisive and by May 1958, the loyalty of the military to the government was seen as doubtful.8Back in France, dissatisfaction regarding the governments plan to cede independence to Algeria resulted in a coup be planned by generals of the French Army, Generals Jean Gracieux, Jacques Massau who supported Admiral Auboyneau, Raoul Salan and Edmond Jouhaud to overthrow the existing government and replace it with Charles de Gaulle as the new head of state. The jack generals then launched paratroopers into Corsica and threatened to do the same in Paris, with an armored partitioning on standby.9Thus, the coup, known as the May 1958 crisis in French history, could be seen as the catalyst of the French Fourth Republic existence replaced by de Gaul le and the Fifth Republic. Also, the Communist Party was strongly opposed to the war, claiming colonization was imperialistic and bourgeoisie.10As the communist party was the largest party in the conglome number notion coalition governments, this greatly wanened the governments resolve in dealing with the crisis.In addition, the generals feared that the French government would pull out of Algeria like it did in French Indo-china, thus incurring more damage to French presumption as it would portray them losing to their own colonies, the plurality whom they turn as act-class citizens. notwithstanding the fact that other colonial powers, Britain in particular, were already granting independence to its large colonial empire after World War 2. India, Burma and Pakistan were three such(prenominal) utilisations of colonies who gained independence after World War 2Furthermore, the war was unpopular with the civilians. After all, this was the crown jewel in the French Empire with over 1 million French settlers, more than Morocco or Tunisia, and it was seen as rattling to maintain what was known as Algerie franaise.11This concept of Algerie franaise was, fundamentally, a concept of angiotensin converting enzyme and equality between the colonist and the colony and was popularized in the 1960s by supporters who wanted to keep Algeria a French colony. However, this concept was far from stable, with the indigenous Muslims creation denied political representation.12Thus, tension was built between the mainland government and the second generation French-Algerians, not helped by the deliberate targeting of civilians with bombs, a tactic initially utilized by the French and later(prenominal) by the FLN.13Furthermore, after general reports of the use of torture by the French Army on prisoners-of-war, the answer in France was one of moral outrage, reducing support for the war even further, with renowned French philosopher and political activist Jean-Paul Satre sp eaking out against the violence.14Finally, the pied-noirs, or French-Algerian citizens, feared for a negotiated peace with the FLN and thus supported the French Army against the Pflimlin government in an act of open defiance.15In addition, the use of conscription in the war did not help its popularity, resembling to the French Indo-China war before that.16Therefore, with a lack of support back in the mainland, it reflected poorly in the governments decision-making capabilities and would cause it to decline in popularity and support. There was also much unhappiness from the pied-noirs, who felt that they were being marginalized as second-class citizens having been forced to repatriate to mainland France and were similar in status as the native Algerians.17Therefore, over 1 million French Algerian joined the Organisation de larme secrete or OAS, fighting for Algeria to remain under French Rule.18They formed a unnerving fighting force, capable of engaging the French Army in tip-and- run attacks, similar to what the French faced in Indochina earlier.Overall, with the French Indo-china war that f sort took place earlier, it signaled the collapse of the French Empire that the Fourth Republic had struggled to prevail together since the end of the war against the tide of decolonization sweeping crosswise the globe.French Indo-China (Vietnam) WarThe French Indo-China War could be perceived as the start of French decolonization around the world. The war began in 1946 and stop in 1954 with France officially pulling its troops out of the country following the Geneva Convention when the French Prime Minister at the time, Pierre Mends France, agreed to negotiate an armistice with the Viet Minh resistance fighters.The sacking of the French forces to the Viet Minh could be blamed on the unstable governmental structure. callable to the high upset rate of governments, there was no consistent constitution for the Indo-China War. For example, the Radical Party was strongl y opposed to any form of French colonialism and when Prime Minister and Radical Party member Mends France agreed to a ceasefire and withdrawal from Indo-China with the Viet Minh, this was met with electric resistance from the Nationalists and the Catholics in the French Parliament in particular, the latter who was opposed to the communists.This war had a great impact on the French civilians, who saw this as the start of the fall of the French empire. Support for the war was severely lacking in mainland France, with the majority of the opposition being driven by the French Communist Party. Attempts to sabotage the war effort were do apparent(a) by such scandals like the Henri Martin affair. Furthermore, the war was extremely costly, costing the government up to US$3million a day. Also, the handling of the war divided the already split cabinet further, with the communists leaving the ruling Tripartite alliance and weakening the cabinet further. The war also had a lasting impact on the morale of the French Army, as it would later compound with the defeat in Algeria. This loss greatly affected the pride of the French Army, as yet recovering from its losses in World War 2. Eventually, the commanders present in Vietnam were ultimately reposted to Algeria to fight in another war against guerillas.Overall, the loss of Indo-china greatly affected French pride, having been defeated in World War 2 prior to that as well as having been on the losing side in the Korean War. Thus, this led the various commanders of the armed forces that they were being marginalised by the French government and demand a change in the head of state.Unstable structureAnother given factor for the fall of the Fourth Republic was its unstable structure.19Essentially, the French Fourth Republic and its government was formed by minority representation, which meant that no single party had a clear majority and had to form coalitions in order to rule. The result of this was that consensus was re ally difficult to achieve due to each party that made up the coalition having their own agenda. The main parties forming most of the coalitions were the Radical Party, who were strong opponents of French colonization, and the socialists, who formed a coalition with the Communist Party. Despite the coalitions and alliances, undivided parties still pursued their own agendas and oft did not cooperate with one another. This was characterized by the members of the French Communist Party. However, as a majority of the parties consisted of ex-French Resistance members, newer politicians ofttimes held them in high esteem and were easily influenced by them.2021The Fourth Republic comprised of about 20 governments led by mixture of political parties in its 13 years in governance and was seen as a direct continuation of the Third Republic, along with all its failures. It had favour a parliamentary style of governance while Charles de Gaulle had in fact favored a presidential style of govern ance. This disagreement resulted in de Gaulle leaving French politics until his return to power in 1958. In comparison to the pre-World War 2 French Third Republic, the Fourth Republics structure of government was essentially the same.22Both were parliamentary democracies and formed coalitions with other parties to form the majority needed. Thus, most of these parties were centrist in nature due to compromises to both the extreme right and extreme left. In addition, a majority of these parties consisted of extremely loose groupings of members knockout around a few notable figures.23This often resulted in unproductive hung parliaments due to the shifting alliances.24Furthermore, cabinets often relied on an often temporary and qualified parliamentary majority to maintain power. Any divisions in power would often lead to a fall in the cabinet and the fluidity in which the majority often shifted its power, which in turn led to the high turnover rate of cabinets.25A gratuity to note is that the electoral coalitions formed were not binding contracts, but merely tactical maneuvers and as such, imposed no obligations among the parties involved to act together on legislature.26One notable example was the when Prime Minister Guy Mollet was in slip. Despite being a Socialist minister, his governments campaign in Algeria had in fact contradicted the rhetoric that the Socialist Party was adopting.27A comparison was made between the structure of government of the French Fourth Republic and the Weimar Republic of Germany by John D. Huber and Cecilia Martinez-Gallardo in the article Cabinet Instability and the Accumulation of Experience The French Fourth and Fifth Republics in Comparative Perspective. The article takes a rather different stand regarding the point that the alleged instability of the Fourth Republics government was more apparent than real as the nominate office holders more or less remained the same while the cabinets around it reformed over and over aga in.28Thus, this instability is instead attributed to individual members of the cabinet, rather than the entire cabinet as a whole and that the individual accumulation of experience by the ministers served to supply a degree of stability to the cabinet.29The above point is further endorsed by Roy Macridis in the article Cabinet Instability in the Fourth Republic (1946-1951). In the article, Macridis states that whenever a new cabinet was installed, very rarely was there a complete turnover in personnel, thus ensuring a high rate of continuation between successive cabinets and ministries despite the fact that the median(a) cabinet lasted around six and a half months in the Fourth Republic.3031However, it is also noted that despite the relative stability of the individual ministries, the cabinets under the Fourth Republic were still lacking any sticky central decision-making process. In fact, due to the coalition structure, the various ministerial posts were distributed among the va rious political parties, namely the Socialists, the Radicals and the MRP (Popular Republican Movement), in accordance to how the cabinet was proportioned at the time. Thus for example, the parliamentary secretaries for the 3 different wings of the military were ever divided between the 3 main political parties.32A point to note is that the Fourth Republic was not popular with voters, with around one in two voters challenging the ability of the government. By 1951, was government was set forth as an addled Parliament and petering out in obscure intrigues over electoral law.33This lack of support explains why the French people were willing to embrace a change in the head of state so quickly. This was also due to their failure to find adequate solutions to replications like unemployment, inflation and more importantly, the Algerian situation.34EvaluationFirstly, the fall of the French Fourth Republic has been attributed to the inherent instability of the cabinets of ministers. With such a high turnover rate of cabinets, it is easy to see how the cabinet could be perceived as weak and volatile. This can be seen by the length of some of the tenures in office of some of the Prime Ministers. However in actual fact, most of the key personnel holders held on to their offices despite the changes in leadership, as noted by Roy Macridis. This lends support to the view that the Fourth Republic merely gave off an air of instability and was in fact more steadfast than what it appeared to be.But, we know that the Army itself was divided among the three political parties due to the coalition structure of government and thus the lack of unity could be seen in the course of the Algerian War, as well as the French Indochina war before that. The Algerian War suffered from a lack of cohesive leadership and battle outline and this in turn could have led to the pervasive dissatisfaction among the generals, who felt that a change in leadership was necessary to get the job done. T his in turn, led to the plan to reinstall war hero Charles de Gaulle as the Prime Minister of a new republic with a coup. Thus, this could be seen as the direct cause of the fall of the Fourth Republic as it at present resulted in the Prime Minister Pierre Pflimlin being replaced and the parliamentary democracy system being scrapped.Furthermore, the French Algerian War also caused the government to lose support of both its citizens in mainland France as well as that of the pied-noirs in Algeria due to the high casualty rate and rumors of torture. The pied-noirs in particular, were demanding independence from France and when their demands were not met by the government, they threw their weight behind the military and took over government offices in protest. Their unhappiness with the government of the Fourth Republic with the war and being forced to seek refuge in Europe was what led to the eventual uprising and support of the OAS. If the pied-noirs had not voiced their unhappiness with the present situation, the government could have just bulldozed their way through the rebels. However, the fact that they still consider Algeria to be the crown jewel of their Empire, coupled by the fact that the pied-noirs numbered near 1 million and were still considered by many to be Europeans, this resulted in the previous French government getting replaced by the popular de Gaulle, who seemed to empathize with the plight of the Algerians.However, the unpopularity of the French Fourth Republic could have also led to its eventual collapse. The unhappiness of the population due to the three wars that occurred right after World War 2 as well as the apparent capabilities of their government could have led to their poor performance. We have to note that the Fourth Republic collapsed in 1958, but by as early as 1951, as mentioned in the article by D.M.P., nearly half the population expressed some form of unhappiness with the current government. Thus, this lack of support early on could have contributed to the fall of the Republic as a government who loses support from its people cannot hope to stay in power for long.Therefore, from the evidence above, we can conclude that the while the French Fourth Republic did suffer from some significant flaws that severely hampered its ability to govern the nation, fight multiple wars as well as manage an empire, the Algerian war did in fact drive the already split cabinet even further apart as the multiple parties in charge could not agree to one common agenda on how the Algerian War should be fought out. This in turn, directly affected the outcome of the war. Thus, the decision made by the rogue generals to implement their coup was swayed by the way the French military was locked in a stalemate with the Algerian guerillas.Presumably, if France was winning in Algeria, then the generals would not have any motive to seek a change in government. However, their coup could have been motivated by dissatisfaction with the F ourth Republic and not influenced by the outcome of the Algerian War. In that case, the fall of the government would be blamed on the very reasons why the people were so discontented with the government its lack of a coherent structure and inability to solve the economic and social problems of France at the time such as unemployment or national debt. Furthermore, with the people of France split regarding the decision over an independent Algeria versus Algerie franaise, the ineptitude displayed by the cabinet over the Algerian War only confirmed the lack of faith that the people of France had in their government.Again, the deciding factor in this situation was the Algerian War. The war was the main issue that the people were concerned about. As with other elections, there will constantly be complaints about jobs, inflation and debt. However, wars are always a major point of contention as the people in a France eventually viewed the Algerian situation as a waste of money and lives. pass on that to the widespread rumors of torture which was later proven to be true, it is not overweening to claim that the Algerian War was the main cause for the fall of the French Fourth Republic.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Theory of Multiple IntelligencesThe theory of quadruple give-and-takes was proposed by psychologist Howard Gardner in the late 1970s. This theory attempted to disprove the news show quotient (IQ) by suggesting that souls actually possess eight different and autonomous news services. Individuals link up and utilize these different types of intuitions to solve problems and make crossways valu equal to(p) to society. The intelligences are lingual, musical, logical-mathematical, naturalist, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. Gardner believed that the intelligence quotient only rills for linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence, and does not include the other equally central intelligence. This represents a departure from acknowledging only academic intelligence, but including other forms of intelligence as well. For example, musicians, quantum theorists, and professional sports players are the scoop at their field, but soak up different ar eas of intelligence that have variances that green goddessnot be detected by fetching the IQ test al maven.With the accompanying work of Charles Spearman on the general intelligence, g, Alfred Binet intentional the IQ test, or intelligence quotient. This was initially used in the first 1900s to test French schoolchildren for their levels of academic achievement in line of battle to properly place them into classes. This theory still remains the primary conception and test of intelligence. But the doubled intelligence theory claims that individuals that excel in one area on intelligence may not necessarily do well in the other areas of intelligence. In another case of opposing beliefs, the general intelligence postulates that intelligence is an innate trait that the individual has no control oer. Gardners theory of deuce-ace-fold intelligence asserts that intelligence is a product of both nature and nurture. Heritable traits give individuals high or low potentials in one a rea of intelligence, depending upon what skills and traits their parents had. In addition, the experiences and practice of the individual deal increase and hone one field of force to its peak, or neglect drop cause underachievement of potential.In Gardners seven areas of intelligence, linguists is the expertness to analyze incoming tuition and utilizing or creating written and oral language, logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to solve schema problems and calculate effectively, and spatial intelligence is the ability to change images with the mind, musical intelligence is the ability to create and appreciate sound patterns, and naturalist intelligence is the ability to identify the natural elements of the world, including plants, animals, and weather. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to correctly place ones dead body in order to solve problems, interpersonal intelligence is the ability to differentiate other individuals moods and intentions, and int rapersonal intelligence is the ability to recognize ones throw moods and intentions.Some seek that tests Gardners theory of multiple intelligences is informal questionnaires, written assessments, or multiple plectron tests. These tests provide a sample of different domains of intelligences and identify each individuals relative and absolute strengths. This is because each domain has a certain score, and domains may be ranked from high to low intelligences for each person, with every individuals score odd and different from any other scores. These results correlate directly to an individuals performances on concrete and immediate tasks. These multiple intelligence ideas were brought to the United States, and the first experiments were performed here. But over time, this theory has spread all over the world and has gained its place and richness in the world of psychology.This test of multiple intelligences allows individuals to have direct feedback of their strengths and weakne sses. In schools, teachers can use this to their advantage by nurturing the areas of strength and improving upon the weaker skills as well. The results of this test can provide a general direction for an individuals next success and the potential of a certain domain. In addition, different curriculums can be adjusted and modified in order to assist a student in learning to their fullest capacity. For example, The Gardner School of Arts and Sciences uses Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligences as the framework for the schools teaching method. The school recognizes the different abilities and intelligences of their students, so teachers comprise all eight domains to identify strength and weakness of each individual and develop each intelligence to the individuals full potential.When I took the written multiple intelligences test, I received individual scores for each domain of intelligence. My highest three intelligences are logical-mathematical, linguistic, and intraperson al. These results allows me identify my areas of strengths and weaknesses as it relates directly to my actions and future success. My highest scoring domain is logical-mathematical intelligence. This means that I can understand logical concepts and mathematical problems well I am able to reason out solutions and function at an abstract level. The jobs that would fit this category would be a physicist or electronic computer programmer. I enjoy working with patterns, relationships, and the abstract. With this intelligence, I can solve baffling problems with reasoning and will tend to be more methodical to bed patterns between events and numbers. The second intelligence domain is linguistic intelligence. This means that I have a essential sense of oral and written intercourse and the different qualities of words and phrases. The careers consistent with high scores in linguistic intelligence are poets and writers. I am more attuned to the meaning, sound, and shapes of words, and am able to use this to my advantage in writing and in speeches in order to inform, persuade, or excite. I enjoy reading, writing, and puzzle solving. My third highest scoring intelligence domain is intrapersonal intelligence. This means that I have a highly developed sense of self-knowledge and an ability to act on that understanding. I learn best from working alone, having time to myself for reflection, and working on self-paced assignments where I have my own space.

Criminal Justice System- War on Drugs

shepherds crook legal expert System- War on medicatesIntroduction This paper pull up stakes meet the retail store of the abominable arbitrator governing body in relation to the hearty umpire musical arrangement on the issue of war on medicates as started by Richard Nixon in 1972 and will look at the effects of certain(p) policies, the loopholes organism exploited and several views from spate nearly the way the roughshod justness trunk tackles the issue of do mediciness. The paper will focus on the contemporary issues that ar think to the vile justness and social judge frames.First, this paper will review the concomitants as they stand and as they were presented earlier. It has been tell that there argon ab emerge 500,000 medicine link up imprisonments in the US. In 1999, it was noted that 1.532 million medicine cogitate arrests were made and this was equivalent to 10.9% of tout ensemble arrests in that year. According to findings, the prison worl d in the US is the largest in the world with dose re deeplyd article of faiths forming a substantial part of these at 25% in 1998 ar in addition noted for 1999. These fool a bun in the oven conduct to the correctional facilities macrocosm filled up by medicate offenders.The interpositions that atomic issue forth 18 accorded for the incarcerated offenders and the methods like medication using drugs like methad angiotensin converting enzyme being expound be then hold forthed. The discussion will too include election in allotments. These sermons include the function of cognitive behavioral therapy, counseling, educational enhancement programs for juveniles and vocational training.Lehigh (1993) reveals that the cost of these manipulations and their outcomes atomic outlet 18 then analyzed with treatment for a star case being put at about USD 2,940 full stop the get to conjunction collectible to this treatment in reduced law-breaking and imprisonment be being put at USD 9,170 in the period 1993 to 1995. The outcomes of these treatments showed a positive effect since the tax payer saved 3 sawhorses for every dollar spent on treatment and likewise beca do the someones who underwent the treatment showed reduced chances of deprivation back to drug engagement as op astonishd to those who did not go through the treatment.Incarceration secondarys argon then discussed at with picks such as treatment of the offenders in hospital-like facilities instead of prison sentences being mooted. The next issue to be discussed is the widely growing clamor for the legalisation of hemp. Notable developments including the to a greater extent relaxed approach to ne off the beaten track(predicate)ious prosecution of drug offenses and preference of treatment alternatives by the new administration, the enlarge economic aid assumption to pro marijuana organizations by the media, the seemingly apathetic en tracement of marijuana natural integrity s by some police force and the new positions being taken at the United Nations will be discussed in detail.Their effects on the growing clamor for drug legalization be analyzed as the section concludes by airing the views of those who demand things to remain as they argon. Pursuant to this the year 2000 Proposition 36 of atomic military issue 20 is discussed with run intos to its attempts to lessen the penalties for non-violent possession or hire of drugs (Cassese, p.65).The concentration of practice of law enforcement agencies in the pursuit of individual users as opposed to the large gangs and combines that produce and beam these drugs is then tackled. The links of the Mexican cartels and the Salvadorian MS-13 gang that has a strong posture in the US at 20,000 buoyed by the post 9/11 concentration on terrorism by the law enforcement agencies is looked at. Descriptions of their links and the threats that they pose other than their distri only whenion of drugs in the US a re besides noted. other gangs like the bulldogs and F-13 are then discussed.To end the paper an analysis of the comprehend racial bias that the war against drugs has taken with the implementation of the illegal justice system being regarded as biased towards the incarceration of minorities in the African American, Latino and Native American populations. Cases are cited like the prevalence of drug related busts in these populations neighborhood and the increased likelihood of minatory persons being arrested of drugs use being incarcerated. The issue of disparate punishment under the law for use of crack cocain and powder cocaine is in any case discussed as being racially discriminative of the African American population.An Examination of the legality Enforcement dos Law enforcement in the United States has become synonymous with various f personationors approach into play. Generally, under the laws of the US, it is a shame to possess, use, distribution and/or manu occurre nceuring of drugs like marijuana, opium and cocaine since they are considered illegal. Investigations on the various ways of curbing drug step among the youth have been carried out by the law enforcement agencies through the police. For instance, in the New York schools, random testing to establish the students who use these drugs has been introduced so as to assist in rehabilitating the students. The US has about 5 pct of the worlds population but 25 percent of the prison population in the world these are about 3 million and on parole there are 5 million. Out of this number the pack who were held for drug related offences were 500,000 in 2008(Webster, 2009).In 2001, The Office of subject field Drug Control polity (ONDCP) released a fact pall on the realm of the criminal justice systems pursuit and addressing of drug related offenses. According to the sheet, 21percent of incarcerations at federal facilities in the US were drug related plot those being locally supervised were reported at 26 percent in 1998. The fact sheet estimated that an average of 71% of the persons incarcerated in the countries jails had laugh atd drugs at some time while the average for the entire population of the USA was estimated to reap up 40%. A literary argument in the sheet quoted the FBI as having made up to 1.532 million arrests that were drug related making up 10.9 percent of all the arrests made in 1999.The song of incarcerations cut across the sexes with males being dominant at 7000 fainthearted of a million and females were recorded to be more than 80,000 in 1997. Females in invoke prisons were found to have been most likely under the drugs work when they committed the offences. The use of the drugs was estimated to have been 4 weeks leading to their offense these statistics were lurch by reversal for the sexes in federal prisons. The cost of maintaining the pris wizrs was for both sexes were found to be equal. The sheet revealed that the amount of money spent on incarceration of individuals with charge that were related to drug offenses in 1996 was USD 30 billion.Application and Operation of the Criminal justice System The criminal justice system in the United States is more often than not guided by the United States Constitution. For instance, the anti-drug abuse treatment is provided in unison to the Violent Crime Control and Law enforcement Act (p.7) by the national Bureau of Prisons ( sock) to the prisoners that were eligible before their release time. This treatment is provided through transitional programs that were both residential and also non-residential. This treatment aims at cut the expenses that are incurred by the society as a result of crimes that were drug related. It also ensures that the drug victim goes back to productive life in the society free of desires to use illegal drugs.Inmates in relation to drug abuse as a criminal offence and how it is dealt withWho are just about to be freed and are living in halfway dramaticss are offered transitional services. These services include counseling and support services. The inmates in the detoxification program are isolated from the general population and are put in treatment units specially designed for detoxification. The non-residential section has programs that are not limited to a single show up but move around to the perceived areas that contend education and counseling on drug related issues.Fields (p.12) insinuates that it was estimated that 77.5 percent of the inmates in correctional facilities infallible treatment for substances abuse. In reality, fewer than 11 percent out of the 77.5 percent were actually getting the treatment in 1997 with 30 percent receiving treatment in facilities that are specially designed. well-nigh 2 percent of them were in hospitals while the others were being treated while in general facilities for all inmates unheeding of crime.There are some(prenominal) modalities covering areas such as cognitive behavio ral therapies and drug base medication. One of them is pharmacological maintenance whereby the participants are subjected to medication that acted in come forth of the desired drug. This gradually eliminates the need felt by the inmate or it blocks the drugs effects on an individual. Levo-alpha-acetymethadol a persistent-acting opioid maintenance compound was also used to surpass the requirement for daily clinic visits for those using metha make.The specific drugs that were in use in 1999 were Buprenrphinand narcotic painkiller. Buprenrphinand was used to antagonize opioids like diacetylmorphine in the bloodstream, Naltrexone also opioid antagonistic inhibits the effects attributed to opioids that reduced an individuals need for the use of the drugs and Methadone. The narcotic analgesic was used in the place of opiate derivatives such as morphine and codeine.It was also reported that inmates were attending outpatient treatments and psychotherapies that were held formally with pr ofessional counselors informally held with peers. These sessions included the use of cognitive behavioral therapies that aimed at changing the reasoning of the individual as to what drove them to the abuse of the substance. vocational therapy and peer group support structure like those made famed by the Alcoholics Anonymous were used during the sessions. Acupuncture was also mooted as an alternative used in conjunction with counseling to aid in fall the physical desire for drugs and the symptoms that are contributed to the denial of accessing the drugs.Other smasheds that were in use to aide abusers were the Multimodality programs. These offered a combined treatment regime that merged treatments such as methadone medications, family and psychotherapy. This therapy was combined with education enhancement which was for inmates that were of school-going-age, speech pattern oversight and vocational training techniques.An aftercare program was and still is in use with all the descr ibed counseling methods being used over a twelve step sessions /meetings o prevent the inmates from relapsing on their scurrilous ways an. Recovery training and additional vocational training is also done to help in the full recovery of these individuals.Webb (p.4) states that there are insufficient programs to promote the well being and support offenders who have recovered(p) and are try to fit back into society.Still there are people who feel that the correctional system is not doing enough to treat these inmates. They cited the addictive properties of some of the treatments as replacing one master for another. This fact led to the Office of National Drug control Policy Reauthorization act of 2006 which was aimed at overcoming the habituation tendencies developed by the patients who were treated using Opioid analgesic drugs.Drug abuse related crime probe techniques are many. The laboratory method may be employed in most move on cases. This is where evidence is collected and put in preservation bags for court demonstration when bringing up the case. The presented evidence is then transported to the central infobase centre where it is unbroken safely. The most ardent technique is the one that involves the use of detectives who essentially wonder the alleged crime committed.The costs and outcomes of treatment According to the National interposition Improvement Evaluation Study of the Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, the mean cost per episode of treatment of substance abuse inmates mingled with 1993 and 1995 was reportedly said to be USD 2,940. The mean gain to society was estimated at USD 9,170 per treated individual this save the society an impressive three dollars for every one dollar spent (Fields, p.17). This was considered a success. The profit was realised from the fact the costs that were footed by society for the purpose of treating and compensating drug related crime damages were greatly reduced since these individuals were made more productive to society.The BOP stick with of inmates that were fully treated and released before 1996 revealed the success program. The BOP survey showed that there was a low probability of the individuals who went through the treatment to rearrest in the first half-year of their release. There was 3.3 percent possibility or rearrested in equation 12 percent possibility for the individuals who were released without undergoing through the treatment. In the post-release period 20 percent of those that had received treatment were reported to use drugs while in the same period, 36 percent of those that didnt seek treatment while incarcerated.Relating companionable Justice to Criminal Justice Basically social justice describes a form of justice system whereby justice is assured in all aspects of the participation. An example of social justice is whereby the society as a whole works together in to stop the penetration of drugs in the community by curbing and ending drug use among the youth. Social justice requires high commitment from the community and their good will to be socially responsible. This because according to critics, the criminal elements are well known to the community and therefore it would be easier to identify and eliminate these criminals.Criminal justice describes a justice system where justice achievement is based on law enforcement agencies which use their policies in reinforcing law and order within the community setup. From as early as 1993, there have been wide break up complaints about the criminal justice system. It was complained that the system, in its war against drugs, took in many prisoners who were landmarked as petty(prenominal) dealers and passive abusers and this left the system in a crisis. These allegations were backed by the American Bar Association.At the floor of the US senate, these sentiments were backed up by Virginia senator Jim Webb who accused the system of going dramatically wrong by quote swamping the prison sy stem with drug offenders. Treatment has been viewed as one of the most efficient alternatives to incarceration and the persuasive abilities of the criminal justice system to get offenders into treatment and to have them follow the regimes efficiently, with little degradation of the tranquillity of communities was seen with the creation of Treatment Accountability for Safer Communities (TASC) program in the 70s.The communities were required to provide the requisite treatment under the criminal justice system prescription while TASC role was to monitor the program as it progressed. This was done to ensure the offender was making progress in their treatment as well as comply with the criminal system prescription.Criminal Justice and Social Justice in relation to Incarceration The criminal justice system and the social justice system pop offle incarceration in different ways. In the social justice system, incarceration is carried out in accordance to the social setting to the communit y. The criminal justice system handles incarceration according to the procedure that has been laid down in the Constitution of the state which is supreme. The correlation between these to systems will be closely examined in this paper. Examples from drug related cases will be used. The attitudes towards the use of illegal drug which is a common activity all over the US have been seen to change over the last months. Reportedly, there are at least 30 groups that are pushing for the legalization of the use of marijuana including Marijuana Policy Project whose members have reported increased attention from mainstream media that wanted to discuss the issue. Open discussion on the issue oflifting the ban with the aim of reducing the growing numbers of inmates held in custody for drug relate crimes such as possession and abuse of marijuana are being carried out.Subsequently, the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws reported the presence of thirty-six different marijuana l egalization bills that were pending in 24 states in mid-march 2009. This teddy attitude is being attributed to the baby-boom generation that used this drug heavily in the 60s and are now controlling the instruments of power. Opinion canvas carried out in atomic number 20 also show a svelte majority of respondents, 54 percent were in support of the legalization. Proponents of legalization present that this will alter the live problem that is attributed to law and order due to the violence that is occurring from the Mexican suppliers of most of this drug to a problem of earth health since the regulators will be analyzing and setting quality standards. They also hold the huge monetary benefits that will accrue due to the reduction of expenditure on enforcement of bans and the amounts that will come in due to the tax that will be gained from the legalization of the trade.In addition, the findings of the Nixon initiated and rejected 1972 Shafer report that found that the users o f and marijuana itself bore no significant harm to the domain and recommended the withdrawal of penalties inclined to the individual users and also small-scale distributors. Further support for this crusade comes from the unconvincing quarters of the UN World Drug Report of 2009 that argued the legalization case. The report lauds a good deal praise on the Portuguese decriminalization policy that not long ago was castigated for encouraging the drugs proliferation. The report roots for the non-custodial detention of drug offenders who are not perceived to be dangerous. The report argues that it is of no benefit to make people caught with drugs and they should be directed to options for treatment options since the package is already confiscated. perchance the biggest support to this issue has come from the moderate stance that is being taken by Gil Kerlikowske the new head of the White houses ONDCP. His comments elicit that the new administration will deal with the drugs issue as more of a health issue as opposed to a criminal issue and gave credence to treatment instead of incarceration.The Seattle police have also openly admitted that their enforcement of marijuana related laws has been lax preferring to deal with other monstrous crimes (Fields, p.21). As always there have been dissenting voices that propose gummy with the current situation they have termed the changing perceptions as hogwash verbal expression that drug offenders do not just need treatment but they should also be punished for breaking the law.Moreover, the executive director of the brotherlike Order of Police James Pasco adds that offenders should be shown the repercussions of breaking the laws. They see the involve to legalize marijuana as start in the debate for the all drugs legalization. This observation is quite true as many of the pro-legalization organizations attest to this fact openly. Those against legalization view legalization as the opening of the floodgates to careless use and putting the non-using population in danger. They would have preferred footing the increasing cost of enforcement than see them repealed. These views are increasingly being marginalized especially in public debate as the more vocal advocators of legalization spread the message. At the senate, one senator voted against Mr. Kerlikowskes suggestions, Senator Tom Cobum of Oklahoma was concerned with the underdeveloped permissive attitude in the country with regard to anti-marijuana law enforcement.Californias proposition 36 In California 30% of the inmates are being held for drug related offenses that involved simple possession and use charges and very few being arrested for distribution of drugs. This fact has led to the confide that the punishment Due to this many believe that the punishment measured out at the drug criminals is not equivalent to nature of their crimes. In 2000 a there was a proposition for the deferment of sentencing from the prisons to facilities for treatm ent after the conviction of an offender.This proposition proposed that the offenders should be sentenced to probation if and only they had gone through the drug treatment program and completed it. It also advocated for offenders convicted with misdemeanors crimes like violence to be undesirable for these provisions. The chance to choose whether or not to participate in these programs were given to offenders after they were convicted and the repercussions of their convictions were made clarified to them. One of the cases where the offender was allowed to choose and root whether to go into treatment or proceed with punishment and pay the charming was the case of the diminutive fine of USD100 proscribed for the possession of marijuana.Participation of offenders in the program was a probationary term. There were no specification on how the offenders were to be treated it was the judge who defined it during the hearing of the case. So this was basically done on case by case basis. The procedures for ensuring quality improve were not specified in the proposition but there was a twelve months maximum period of treatment but the minimum period was not given. Probation officers were to monitor the progress of the participants with regard to the treatment and to accordingly advice the court.At the time, the data on the California probationers did not assist the cause for this law, this is because the data revealed that up to a third of the probationers were rearrested 12 months into their probation and this cast doubt on the treatments rough-and-readyness. Another observation wasthat the law would have shifted the treatment burden to public institutions with more treatment of synthetic drugs in the future being seen as compared to Heroin which was the leading drug being treated at that time. It was also found that the system that existed then was not sufficient enough for use the expected large numbers.Previous experience with implementation of legislation in Cali fornia like the three strikes law also worked to the deflation of confidence in this proposition with analysts believing that the implementation would be varying from the court house and location. The number of plea bargains was also projected to increase with the implementation and the aid that a good number of the offenders sent to community-based treatment will not adhere to the treatment plan (Brownlie, p.74). Differences were expected in the implementation of the law where definitions were not as clear and the implementation of this law was linked with an increase with possession-for sale charges thus creating a newer problem.War on drugs gangs and cartels It has been noted that the drug war, instead of focusing on the drug cartels and gangs that distribute the drugs and met violence on the population at an approximated 1million people, it focused on the individual non-violent offenders suffering from addiction or mental illness (Webb, p.27). The ABA panel back in 1993 warned that the calculative rise in incarceration of harmless low level drug offenders was depleting the resources that were needed to combat more serious often violent crime (Lehigh, p.3).As the criminal justice system turns the heat on the individual users the gangs are prospering given the major support they receive from Mexican drug cartels. There are many gangs in America, and they have nationwide reach. According to Webster (p.9) American gangs are doing brisk business for Mexican drug cartels that supply them with drugs which they then sell down the drug sale kitchen range to smaller gangs and drug addicts. These small gangs collect money for the cartels and the other hand the cartels enforce punishments that are to be meted to any individual who crosses their path or defaults in their dealings.Mara Salvatrucha MS-13 mafia is one of these gangs whose leaders are being incarcerated in some state prisons like California. This gang was founded by Salvadorians in the 80s in Los Angel es. It is involved in the smuggle of drugs and people across the border, and accused of raping and assaulting many immigrants. This gang has a trademark of leave a dismembered corpse with a decapitated head in crime scenes their involvement in crime is not restricted to drugs as they volitionally involve themselves in crimes that they feel are good for their reputation. The FBI has reacted by creating a joint task force with the DEA and ICE aimed at countering the MS-13.The Columbian Cali cartel is another cartel though not as powerful. Both of these cartels have adopted international corporation management style. They have multilevel management starting from the cocaine production sites in South Americas Columbia and Venezuela among other countries up to the highly networked Mexican cartels with valuable smuggling routes to the US and they also have well established networks for distribution within the US.Another network is the opium trade that starts in Afghanistan finds its way to Mexico and then returns to America. These drugs are brought to Mexico by gangs from former soviet states who usually buy them from Afghanistan. The high boodle obtained from the sale of these drugs are responsible for their continuity. For instance, processed cocaine goes for about USD 1500/kg in Columbia while in the alleys of US, it sells for about USD 66,000/ kg representing a 4300% profit margin making it worth the risk that is involved (Tierney, p.44). This drug money is said to have become an integral part of the Mexican economy with vast regions involving themselves in the planting of marijuana and poppy for opium.The MS-13 is suspected to be in plans to smuggle terrorists into the US after it was seen meeting members of Al-Qaeda in Honduras. Another gang the F-13 had its members arrested and in the Los-Angeles area after shootouts with the African-American gangs trying to capture their drug distribution networks (Lehigh, p.34).These statistics show where the criminal j ustice system should lay its emphasis on, that is stopping the drugs from entering into the US. These facts also paint a deem picture about the call for legalization of drugs as this would be tantamount to supporting these criminal organizations and giving them funds to continue their hulk of terror on the American public and the citizens of the countries that the memberscome from.Impact of Drug Policies on the Criminal Justice System Jensen, Gerber and Mosher (p.6) suggest that criminologists have realized that the criminal justice system has been fundamentally changed in direct reception to the current war on drug. Since the beginning of the war on drugs, the number of prisoners incarcerated for drug crimes has increased.The criminal justice system has been forced to quickly make sweeping changes in policy to ensure the requirements of the war on drugs are met.Furthermore, prisons that were already overcrowded have been stretched to the limits of their capacities and more so tha t the kink of new prisons shortly became necessary.This rapid influx of prisoners did not allow criminal justice professionals satisfactory time to research whether alternative measures to incarceration such as treatment or rehabilitation for less serious offenses would be more effective than simply imprisoning every individual convicted of a drug crime regardless of extenuating circumstances.A proactive approach to prevent drug crimes from occurring in the first place would serve society far better than the current system of reactively arresting, convicting and imprisoning people, then dealing with the myriad societal problems created by the criminal justice process. Imprisoning large numbers of people for long periods of time without regard for the seriousness of the crime they have committed and the subsequent long term effects of that incarceration, is neither beneficial to society nor is it fair to the criminal justice system.The criminal justice system lacks sufficient reso urces to handle the increasing number of drug prisoners who are constantly jailed without any feasible option being present on the ground at the time of their conviction. It is and so evident that according to Jensen, Gerber and Mosher (p.24) building more prisons would not be a prudent step to take.Authorities must therefore put their heads together in ensuring that they achieve this in the nearest time possible as the criminal justice system is choking from a host of problems. The resultant role therefore seems to lie in conducting a thorough research in order to determine the potential punishments that could be employed without restraining the criminal justice system.Capstone Model Modern Criminal and Social Justice IssueThe fight against drug related crime is one of the most juvenile issues in the social are as well as the criminal area. This is more so true in relation to race. The relationship between drug use and race a modern dilemma that is liner the law enforcement age ncies on a daily basis. This capstone model is aimed at establishing this relationship. The American Bar association from as early as the late 80s, had noted drug related arrest rates for minorities were far much greater than those of the majority. There has been a definite connection discover between racial biases and the way the war on drugs has been carried out.It is argued that Native Americans, blacks and Latinos have borne the brunt of the war against drugs with a disproportionate number of these communities being incarcerated as compared to snow-covered majority (drug policy alliance, p.1). The alliance claims that racial profiling has dominate the investigation and prosecution of drug related crime with the police holding street drug bust operations in low income areas that are dominated by black and Latinos. In fact, members of minorities who are users of psychoactive drugs have in greater proportions been arrested and punished through prosecution in the criminal justice system instead of being taken to health care institutions to be medicated and reformedThere is an argument that the courts charging system is racially biased, sentencing is marred with disagreement and that those in charge of guarding the system from issues like discrimination are not doing their work. In a report by human rights watch it is quoted that the black community represents 74% ofthe people sent to prison for drug-related offences even though they make up 13% of the drug users population (Belenko, p.17). In analogy to white people, the blacks and Latinos have a13 times more likelihood of being incarcerated in prisons. Latinos and Native Americans are also not spared with the former being 50% of the entire marijuana-related arrests and the latter forming approximately 66% of those being prosecuted for these offenses at federal level (Maxfield and Babbie, p.31).It was claimed that the war on drugs as carried out has encouraged the construction of prisons in rural US oste nsibly to accommodate the swelling numbers of the minor population being arrested offenses that are drug related. Much cynicism is also attached to the treatment of minorities with many in the criminal justice system falsely believing that most crimes are attributable to minorities and that most minorities are involve in crime. The alliance also claims that much more attention is given to minority neighborhoods and therefore more arrests and convictions of the minorities. Consequently, a large number of these communities will be incarcerated the skewed opinion is thus perpetuated (Drug Policy Alliance, p.2).The entre of treatment and education programs, common in the white middle shape communities, in the low-income minority neighborhoods was suggested as alternative instead of constructing more prisons

Export Potential of Halal Food Industries

Export Potential of proper nourishment Industries3.1Total Exports and Sh ar of halal FoodAs per authentic statistics of Economic- panorama of Pakistan 2013-14, supply exports of the boorish during July 2013-Apr 2014 were USD 20.997 billion1 whereas total moments were USD 37.105 billion2. in that respect is no separate data available on proper feed exported during last few years. However, as per SBP report, fodder group exports of last two years argon tabulated below duck-B EXPORT RECEIPTS BY goodness(Thousand US Dollar)(Thousand US Dollar)CommodityJul-JunAugJul ( R)Aug (P)Jul-AugFY12FY13FY14 (P)FY14FY15FY15FY14 PFY15 PA. Food assemblage3,789,3734,142,2904,233,395278,676293,128301,541609,560594,66901. Rice2,075,4151,876,2292,099,719133,431135,732134,068287,340269,799A) Basmati1,064,366822,420993,79470,16980,17773,809148,448153,986B) Others1,011,0491,053,8091,105,92563,26255,55560,258138,892115,81302Fish Fish Preparations338,959336,151366,40321,52326,38922,29845,78048,6870 3Fruits243,107283,758310,13121,05922,48424,78847,55347,27104Vegetables/Leguminous Vegetabl118,904139,980145,90910,9898,58911,28722,92719,87605Tobacco23,17027,84226,0773,8861,0152,2658,4853,27906Wheat Unmilled62,34429,7023,197361001,592007Spices37,66441,07156,6972,8062,6445,8166,5928,46008Oil Seeds, Nuts and Kernals27,29149,75969,4782,0831,2731,5333,8702,80609Sugar20,659431,161304,8168,91411,98222,42737,29834,40910 spirit and Meat Preparations212,106224,432237,12018,20023,65322,20640,95245,85911All Other Food Items629,753702,204613,84955,42459,36954,854107,171114,223LegendP Provisional, R Revised,Source http//www.sbp.org.pk/ecodata/index2.aspThere are approximately 50 proper dependant companies operating in Pakistan3. The Al-Shaheer Corporation, PK Livestock and Zenith Associates are prominent meat exporters of the country. Meat-one, the supplementary organization of Al-Shaheer has significantly enhanced the exports of halal aliment i.e. beef and mutton, especially to Gulf countr ies. On the poultry side, KNs is a big name. It is merchandise chicken to the West and in any case opened branch in the USA.As per full year statistics of 2013-14, exports of much than 74,000 tonnes of meat and its products grabbed just closely $230m, up from most 63,000 tonnes expenditure $211m in 2012-134. Meat is mainly exported to Saudi-Arabian Arabia followed by Kuwait, UAE, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, chinaware and Afghanistan. Similarly, exports of milk and cream ( non tough/sweetened) also witnessed significant growth during 2013-14 by fand so forthing $50m in comparison with previous year figure of $20m5. While, the exports of concentrated or sweetened milk and cream, during 2013-14, stood at same level of $9m6 as in 2012-13. Increasing exports and parallel rise in demand of tasteful milk and meat, are suggestive of sharp potential growth of some(prenominal) the sectors, in near future and calls for investments in dairy and meat industry.3.2Govt. policies for progres sion of halal productsGoernment of Pakistan is striving to grow halal fodder industry. The political sympathies has announced that 50 percent subsidy7 shall be supportd in order to modify telephone circuitmen and producers to explore the proper mart for Pakistani products. Pakistan National Accreditation Council (PNAC) is facilitating halal Accreditation Scheme on the pattern on OIC halal Guidelines developed by the SMIIC for promotion of halal products in the foreign securities industry. Similarly, PSQCA has also introduced proper Standards i.e. PS-3733 2010 for the companies in Halal food sector and PS-4992 2010 regarding the authorized organizations dealing with certification of Halal8 products.In May 2014, the Science and Technology Ministry GoP finalized the draft Bill to establish Pakistan Halal Authority (PHA) at the federal level to guide and facilitate the business of Halal products and processes. Moreover, PCSIR has recently established a state-of-the-art halal trademark laboratory at Lahore9. Despite passing of sufficient time, PHA Bill 2014 is fluent in pipeline and not approved, so far.3.3 realness Halal prevaricationOn 3-4 June, 2014, first World Halal Assembly with event them Asia-Future of World Halal Trade organized in Islamabad. The event was hosted by PSQCA and Halal Products Services Association of Pakistan (HAP). Over 250 scholars and expertise hailing from 40 different states go to the event10. At the occasion, Mr. Zahid Hamid, Federal Minister for Science Technology, vowed to provide complete patronize to private sector in Pakistan to boost Halal products.Participating scholars and dignitaries including Mr. Haluk Dag, escritoire General-SMIIC in his address underscored the importance of cooperation and coordination to accomplish the objective of One Halal logo and One Halal standard11. Global experts also shared their worthyy information/ideas and discussed issues/challenges concerning with the Halal trade, certificat ion, accreditation and commercializeing. bout of cooperation agreements were also signed in the gathering, which is seeming to stand by topical anaesthetic companies to enhance their exports of halal food items.Section-IV International tradeplace of Halal Food4.1Size of Global Halal Food market placeThe global Muslim race estimates stand at 1.8 billion12, this represents 26 % of the total global population (6.8 billion), whereas share of worldwide halal food market is to the highest degree 16 % of the aggregate food market, which means that a minimum space of at least 10 % is available to be change by halal food companies. bare-asss story published in renowned TIME Magazine (May 2009 issue) suggests that total volume of global Halal food market13 is worth about US$ 632. trade size of Halal food in Europe is about $66 billion14, with France havingthe largest share of approx.$17 billion. InUnited Kingdom, only the Halalmeat sale is worthover $600 gazillion annually.Musli ms residing in the USA spend about $13 billion on Halal food products every year. It is worth mentioning that GCC countries aggregate exports of Halal food is approx. $44 billion. Similarly, in the neighboring India, worth of Halal food business is about $ 21 billion, per annum15. Worldwide halal food market is depicted in following global represent with the help of circles16.4.2Stakes of Pakistan in the Global Halal Food MarketPresently, Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in the world with population of over 180 one thousand thousand, while Indonesia stood at first place. But according to a news story on website of TIME magazine17, Pakistan is interchangeablely to overtake Indonesia and croak the largest Muslim nation by 2030 with expected population over of 256 million. Thus, Pakistan has to propose for leading global Halal food market in the future. Unfortunately, the reliable share of the country in international halal food market is mere 0.5 %18. Pakistan has di rect access to the markets of Central Asia, Middle East. On the new(prenominal) hand, Pakistan is not only the 6th largest cattle breeder but also worlds leading poultry breeder. Following table depicts the unusual vertical growth of poultry sector in Pakistan which has outpaced other sectors of livestock.Table C Livestock population in PakistanGrowth Livestock Population (In million)YearBuffaloesCattleGoatsSheepPoultry1990-9117.817.737.026.3146.91991-9218.317.738.727.4156.21992-9318.717.840.227.7182.61993-9419.217.842.028.3250.01994-9519.717.843.829.1318.81995-9620.320.441.223.5350.01996-9720.820.842.623.7382.01997-9821.421.244.223.8276.01998-9922.021.645.823.9278.01999-0022.722.047.424.1282.02000-0123.322.449.124.2292.42001-0224022.850.924.4330.02002-0324.823.352.824.6346.12003-0425.523.854.724.7352.62004-0526.324.256.724.9372.02005-0627.329.653.826.5433.82006-0728.230.755.226.8477.02007-0829.031.856.727.1518.02008-0929.933.058.327.4562.02009-1030.834.359.927.8610.02010-1131.73 5.661.5528.1663.02011-1232.736.963.128.4721.02012-1333.738.364.928.8785.0Source Pakistan Food Journal, Nov-Dec 2013 issue.4.3Leading Countries of Halal Food tradeIt is strange that non-Muslim nations the likes of Brazil, France, the USA, New Zealand, Thailand, Philippines, etc. are leading the international Halal food market, whereas, Muslim countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, etc. come later in the list. Australia, Canada, capital of Singapore, India are also known as major exporters of Halal food. With 01 million MT export of frozen Halal chicken, and 300,000 MT of Halal beef products, Brazil is the leading the Halal food market19. France is second major player. It exports 750,000 MT Halal frozen chickens annually to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, etc. United States is the third largest beef exporter in the world and more than 80 percent of its frozen beef is Halal. Fourth largest beef exporter is New Zealand and 40 percent of its beef products exports are Halal20.4.4Windows of Oppor tunities for Pakistan.There are consider of opportunities for Pakistan to grab its share in global halal market. Owing to its geo-strategic spatial relation Pakistan can easily become leader of Halal food market in the South Asia, later on, it can lead the global markets of halal food commodities. Population wise different global markets are mentionedAsia21 Number of Muslim countries are situated in Asia. In Middle-East and western part of Asia, aggregate population of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, UAE, Syria, Iraq, Turkey, Jordon, Azerbaijan, etc. is more than 190 million. They build highly fertile Halal food market. In East Asia and ASEAN Market,Muslim population is more than 360 million including Indonesia (195million), China, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Myanmar, etc. ASEAN countries are unique in the awareness that they not only supply halal food products but import as well. For instance, Malaysia exports Halal food items to Indonesia. China possesses immense potential as a mar ket of Halal food and local companies can revolve about on this untapped market, besides covering nearby countries of Indonesia and Malaysia.Importantly, our own part i.e. South and Central Asia is thickly populated with more than 600 million Muslims (including Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Iran, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, etc. It is a massive market for Halal products as food items are available in Muslim countries but without any halal certification.Africa22 north African countries like Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia and Libya share population of more than 181 million Muslims. In West African nations i.e. including Nigeria,Niger, Mali, Ivory Coast, Senegal, Guinea, Ghana, etc. more than 150 million Muslims are residing. Whereas, East African countries including Ethiopia, Tanzania, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Mozambique, and other countries have population of more than 92 million Muslims. Similarly, Central African countries in cluding Congo, Chad, Cameroon has Muslim demography of about 17 million. In South Africa, though Muslim population is about 1.2 million but Muslims consumers are very particular on HALAL products which creates an opening for Pakistan to harness the potential for Halal products.Europe23More than 50 million Muslims are residing in different European countries like UK, France, Russia, Germany, Bosnia, Kosovo, Albania, Russia, etc. It is an big market for Halal food as consumers have high purchasing male monarch and possess strong eager to buy those food brands which book Halal logo.North South America24 Total population of Muslim residents in both Americas is about 10 million (USA 6.4m, Brazil 1m, Canada 0.8m and other countries). Muslims inhabitation in the USA also possess high purchasing power and always prefer HALAL products.ConclusionDespite a preponderating Muslim country, share of Pakistan in global Halal food market is very insignificant. Sindh province has considerable industrial base and some of the local companies are major players of Halal food market within country and export their products as well. However, a lot of potential in international Halal food trade is yet to be harnessed by local business organizations. Absence of central Halal food ascendancy to guide and channelize the Halal food business is primary overleap in promotion of Halal food exports throughout the world.It is strange that non-Muslim nations like Brazil, France, USA, New Zealand, etc. are currently leading the market of Halal products. There are number of potential markets which can be concentrate by local businessmen for exporting Halal food items. Pakistan falls at 6th rank in the growth of livestock, however, lack of demand infrastructure and seriousness of investors has resulted into very low exports. The existing problem of negatively charged trade balance of Pakistan can easily be addressed by focusing on Halal food markets and making local products equally compatible in the international market. There is need of structured speak to of the rulers to carryout detailed study in global Halal industry and promote it, which would result into not only boosting of exports but also allied benefits like provision of employment opportunities.RecommendationsThe pending bill of Pakistan Halal Authority has to be converted into implementable legislation, at the earliest.Government of Pakistan has to devise short term and great vision plans for converting the country into hub of global Halal food market. In this regard, Vision-Halal 2020, as well as Vision-Hub of Halal-2030 as short and long term plans to strive the goals like attaining significant space in international market by 2020 and then journey to become global leader of Halal food by 2030.Halal Certification bodies are to be established in line with international standards of Halal food and to meet the standard of hygiene food for western world.The Government has to extend financial and technical help to producers and embolden the local businessmen to participate in international exhibitions where they not only find buyers for their Halal products but also learn from the bring of established producers and suppliers of Halal products.Establishment of Halal food export zones in Sindh province, with tax rebates is need of the hour.In order to boost Halal food exports, the government will have to make investment in dairy farming infrastructure, cold chain and veterinary services and farm caution systems.Private Banks can also introduce new financing schemes to encourage the Halal food industry throughout the country.Public-Private Partnership schemes in Halal food sector aiming at export of the value added products would also provide an impetus to the food industry.1 Economic Survey of Pakistan 2013-14, Page 1172 Economic Survey of Pakistan 2013-14, Page 1193 Interview with Mr. Akram Khan, of HIRCP, dated 12.09.20144 http//www.dawn.com/news/1130468 (accessed on 15. 09.2014)5 ibid6 ibid7 http//www.pnac.org.pk/index.php?PageId=110 (accessed on 01.10.2014)8 http//www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/05/08/business/bill-drafted-to-establish-pakistan-halal-authority/ (accessed on 01.10.2014)9 Ibid.10 http//halalfocus.net/pakistan-oic-smiic-world-halal-assembly/ (accessed on 01.10.2014)11 Ibid.12 http//www.pnac.org.pk/index.php?PageId=110 (accessed on 07.10.2014)13 http//www.halalpakistan.com/ hypertext mark-up language/halal_market.htm (accessed on 07.10.2014)14 Ibid.15 Ibid.16 Global Halal Food Industry Guide to tapping the fast growing Halal Food Market, Singapore (SPRING 2011), 06.17 http//newsfeed.time.com/2011/01/27/2-2-billion-worlds-muslim-population-doubles/ (accessed on 25.10.2014)18 http//nation.com.pk/business/24-Mar-2014/pakistan-shares-0-5pc-only-in-halal-food-market-zahid (accessed on 07.10.2014)19 Ibid.20 Ibid.21 http//www.halalpakistan.com/html/halal_market.htm (accessed on 08.10.2014)22 Ibid.23 Ibid.24 Ibid.

Gilbert Ryles The Concept of Mind Essay -- Concept Mind Gilbert Ryle

gilbert Ryles The image of MindIn The Concept of Mind Gilbert Ryle adjudicates, in his own words, to explode the myth of Cartesian dualism. His primary manner in this endeavour is to explain why it is a logical error to describe minds and bodies with semantically similar language while secondarily, he proposes that make up to speak of minds as a second-order ontology is to take the first step in the wrong direction towards intellectual clarity. Thus, with the desire to arrive at this sibylline locale, the following peripatetic discussion will set out with Ryle at his point of departure, viz. Descartes Myth it will then survey the lay-of-the-land at Ryles mapped out midway point, viz. Self-Knowledge and from there, judge whether Ryle himself is headed in the right direction, or, whether disrespect the ribbons and fan-fare, Ryles excursion takes place on a circular track.Ryle begins by seek to expose the theory of Cartesian Dualism as an absurd logical error. To do this, he ac cuses it of having an inherently faulty structure that it exemplifies one big category-mistake.1 To understand this claim we must first look at what Ryle deems a category-mistake.A category-mistake is committed when one accounts for a concept by placing it in a certain logical type, or category, when in fact it belongs to a different division altogether. So to describe or qualify both items or ideas of dissimilar constitution within the same linguistic mannequin is to commit this mistake. Ryle provides numerous examples for the elucidation of this error, only one of which follows she came home in a flood of tears and a sedan chair.2 The silliness of this statement shows the category-mistake for what it is a failure to use langu... ...ons it is my considered opinion that despite Ryles attempt at intellectual clarity, this clarity is an illusion.NOTES1 Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind, p. 17.Back to visor of hand perspective in text2 Ibid., p. 23.Back to note location in t ext3 Ibid., p. 15.Back to note location in text4 Ibid. Back to note location in text5 Ibid., p.21.Back to note location in text6 Ibid., p. 23.Back to note location in text7 I refer to John R. Searle, The Rediscovery of The Mind, in which the author states Mental phenomena are caused by neurophysiological processes in the head word and are themselves features of the brain. p. 1.Back to note location in text8 Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind, p. 149.Back to note location in text9 Ibid., p. 149.Back to note location in text10 Ibid., p. 162.Back to note location in text